More common were disputes such as the 1606 'battle of the flags' in Donauwörth, when the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession. This provided an opportunity for Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who invaded the Empire in 1630; backed by French subsidies, the Swedes and their German allies won a series of victories over Imperial forces, although Gustavus was killed in 1632. A Spanish offensive in 1636 reached Corbie in Northern France; although it caused panic in Paris, lack of supplies forced them to retreat, and it was not repeated. In addition, Lutherans could keep lands or property taken from the Catholic Church since the 1552 Peace of Passau. Each member was represented in the Imperial Diet; prior to 1663, this assembled on an irregular basis, and was primarily a forum for discussion, rather than legislation. [129], Bautzen is besieged by Saxon troops, 1620 by Matthäus Merian, Battle of Frankfurt an der Oder,April 1631, Death of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden at the Battle of Lützen,6 November 1632, The capture of Rheinfelden by the troops of the Duke of Feria,1633, Unsuccessful Swedish-Transylvanian siege of Brno, 1645, 1618–1648 multi-state war in Central Europe, Phase II; France joins the war 1635 to 1648. Le sac de Magdebourg, le siège et le pillage de la ville protestante en Allemagne en grande partie par les forces de l'Empire romain pendant la Guerre de Trente Ans. Massacre de protestants par les catholiques pendant les guerres de religions. De 1618 à 1648, la guerre de Trente ans a mis le Saint Empire à feu et à sang. However, it was a compromise that failed to resolve underlying religious and political tensions within the Holy Roman Empire. Luc Rugamba . Un massacre , une extermination, une guerre oubliée dans les manuels scolaires ! Ce n'est qu'au XIXe siècle que la ville retrouve un nombre d'habitants identique à celui d'avant le sac. Spain was now forced to resupply their armies in Flanders by sea, making them vulnerable to the Dutch navy. This was the reason behind Spanish involvement in the Jülich dispute; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the Electoral Palatinate. The combination destabilised large parts of the Empire. La guerre de Trente Ans constitue toujours un objet de fascination. [111] Nearly 50% of these losses appear to have been incurred during the first period of Swedish intervention from 1630 to 1635. Lack of a sense of 'shared community' resulted in atrocities such as the destruction of Magdeburg, while creating large numbers of refugees, who were extremely susceptible to sickness and hunger. Bohemia (until 1620) Les trois premières s’achèvent sur un succès du camp impérial et catholique, ce qui engage dans le conflit, à chaque fois, un nouvel acteur pour soutenir le camp protestant. Ambrosio Spinola, commander in the Spanish Netherlands, was preparing to restart hostilities, which required securing the Spanish Road. Their attribution by some to supernatural causes led to a series of Witch-hunts, beginning in Franconia in 1626 and quickly spreading to other parts of Germany, which were often exploited for political purposes. [72], Defeat at Nördlingen threatened Sweden's participation, leading Richelieu to intervene directly. [62] The Smolensk War is considered a separate but related part of the Thirty Years' War. [25] Some historians who view the war primarily as an international conflict argue this marks the beginning of the conflict, since Spain and Austria backed the Catholic candidate, France and the Dutch Republic the Protestant. Delivering these commitments required his election as Emperor, which was not guaranteed; one alternative was Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, and tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy.  Saxony (1630–1635)[note 1] Daniel Kehlmann a choisi de lui faire traverser la guerre de Trente Ans, ce conflit qui dévasta l’Europe entre 1618 et 1648. A combined Imperial-Catholic League army funded by Maximilian and led by Count Tilly pacified Upper and Lower Austria before invading Bohemia, where they defeated Christian of Anhalt at the White Mountain in November 1620. [52], Many of Christian's German allies, such as Hesse-Kassel and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination for Danish, while few of the subsidies agreed in the Treaty of the Hague were ever paid. Frederick fled Bohemia and the revolt collapsed. Des guerres de Trente Ans, il y en a aussi dans le monde actuel. [131], Although religion remained an issue throughout the 17th century, it was the last major war in Continental Europe with religion as its primary driver; later such conflicts were either internal, such as the Camisards in South-Western France, or relatively minor like the 1712 Toggenburg War. In Lorraine, the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, occupied by France since 1552, were formally ceded, as were the cities of the Décapole in Alsace, with the exception of Strasbourg and Mulhouse. Dans la matinée du 1 er octobre 1990, le FPR-Inkotanyi attaqua le poste-frontière de Kagitumba entre le Rwanda et l’Ouganda. [82], In May, a Bavarian army under Franz von Mercy destroyed a French detachment at Herbsthausen, but he was defeated and killed at Second Nördlingen in August. This new assault on 'German liberties' ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success. La guerre de Trente Ans fut une suite de conflits armés qui mit l’Europe à sang de 1618 à 1648 . 17th century Europe was a highly structured and socially conservative society, and their lack of enthusiasm was due to the implications of removing a legally elected ruler, regardless of religion. [23], As a result, when the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, the Protestants demanded formal confirmation of the Augsburg settlement, which was especially significant for Calvinists like Frederick IV, Elector Palatine who had not been included. [37], As a result, although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support gradually eroded over the next few months. [54], In May 1628, his deputy von Arnim besieged Straslund, the only port with large enough shipbuilding facilities, but this brought Sweden into the war. Brandenburg-Prussia received Farther Pomerania, and the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Kammin, and Minden. Après sa chute, (20 mai 1631) les soldats impériaux est allé hors de contrôle et ont massacré 25 000 des habitants. Its main provisions included Spanish confirmation of Dutch independence, and acceptance of "German liberties" by the Austrian Habsburgs. Although the battle was far from decisive, the rebels were demoralised by lack of pay, shortages of supplies and disease, while the countryside had been devastated by Imperial troops. Comme ville protestante et ville hanséatique, Magdebourg, est assiégée par l'armée impériale de novembre 1630 jusqu'au 10 mai 1631. With the exception of Christian of Anhalt, his advisors urged him to reject it, as did the Dutch, the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James. Actuel, pourquoi ? Ágnes Várkonyi: Age of the Reforms, Magyar Könyvklub publisher, 1999. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHeitz,_Risher1995 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFParker1997 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson1976 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFHayden1973 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFSpielvogel2006 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFDavenport1917 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMurdoch,_Grosjean2014 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFParker,_Adams1997 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFPorshnev,_Dukes1995 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMurdoch,_Zickermann,_Marks2012 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMitchell2005 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFIsrael1989 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchulze,_Volckart2019 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFPfister,_Riedel,_Uebele2012 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFBonney2002pp89-90 (, Protestantism was effectively wiped out in what is now. Gustavus signed an alliance with Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania, securing his interests in Pomerania against the Catholic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, another Baltic competitor linked to Ferdinand by family and religion. Regardless of religion, most German princes refused to support him and by early 1620 the Bohemian Revolt had been suppressed. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at Lutter in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November. [49], In the June 1624 Treaty of Compiègne, France subsidised the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years. [87], French policy was to seek to disrupt this road wherever possible, either by attacking the Spanish-held Duchy of Milan, or by blocking the Alpine passes. Although retaken in 1625, a second fleet established Dutch Brazil in 1630, which was then relinquished in 1654. [101] It also disappointed many exiles by accepting the restoration of Catholicism as the dominant religion in Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, strongholds of Protestantism in 1618. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder the lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. This influential work was later credited with ending the practice in Germany, and eventually throughout Europe. Although von Hatzfeldt defeated a Swedish-English-Palatine force at Vlotho in October 1638, Breisach's surrender to Bernhard in December secured French control of Alsace and the Rhineland, severing the Spanish Road. [41], Spanish chief minister Olivares correctly interpreted this as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions. [59], As ever, Richelieu's policy was to 'arrest the course of Spanish progress', and 'protect her neighbours from Spanish oppression'. He did so with support from the Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The future Pope Alexander VII and the Venetian Republic acted as mediators, with a total of 109 delegations attending at one time or other. [20], While Emperors were elected, since 1440 this had been a Habsburg, the largest single landowner within the Empire; their lands included the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Bohemia, and the Kingdom of Hungary, with over eight million subjects. Prompted by France, the rebels proclaimed the Catalan Republic in January 1641. Le 23 mai 1618, la révolte des nobles tchèques contre la monarchie des Habsbourg et la restauration du catholicisme en Bohême lance la guerre de trente ans. [48], Ferdinand had paid Wallenstein for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. Ferdinand and his advisors were greatly concerned by the brutal nature of the Würzburg and Bamberg trials, fearing they would discredit the Counter-Reformation, and active persecution largely ended by 1630. [31], Ferdinand reconfirmed Protestant religious freedoms when elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria. Heilbronn League (1631–1635) Four of the electors were Catholic, three Protestant; if this could be changed, it might result in a Protestant Emperor. Proche de Belgrade, la Russie a mis en 2015 son veto à la résolution de l’ONU qualifiant le massacre de génocide.  Habsburg Monarchy [96] The Dutch were also given a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, confirming the commercial ascendancy of Amsterdam; Antwerp, capital of the Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in Northern Europe, would not recover until the late 19th century. [85], During the winter of 1647, Mazarin suggested to the Spanish they exchange Catalonia, currently occupied by France, for the Spanish Netherlands; angered by this, in January 1648 the Dutch signed the Peace of Münster, ending their war with Spain. [81], In 1643, Frederick III of Denmark re-entered the conflict as an Imperial ally, threatening the Swedes with a war on two fronts. This made it easier to levy national armies of significant size, loyal to their state and its leader; one lesson learned from Wallenstein and the Swedish invasion was the need for their own permanent armies, and Germany as a whole became a far more militarised society. [126], The Peace reconfirmed "German liberties", ending Habsburg attempts to convert the Holy Roman Empire into an absolutist state similar to Spain. Parce que cette histoire d’un conflit qui s’est passé il y a 350 ans et plus, nous renvoie à de l’actualité. Of the 30,000 citizens, only 5,000 survived. Comme ville protestante et ville hanséatique, Magdebourg, aujourd'hui capitale de la Saxe-Anhalt, est assiégée par l'armée impériale de novembre 1630 jusqu'au 10 mai 1631. In 1618, the Bohemian Estates deposed the Catholic Ferdinand II as King of Bohemia; they offered the Crown to the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate, who accepted. [15], These figures can be misleading, since Franz calculated the absolute decline in pre and post-war populations, or 'total demographic loss'. [60] With French resources tied up in Italy, he helped negotiate the September 1629 Truce of Altmark between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus Adolphus to enter the war. Depuis trente ans, la guerre refuse de desserrer ses griffes sur Gomet Usta, un vétéran azerbaïdjanais habitant à quelques centaines de mètres du front. This seemed confirmed when Tilly's Catholic League army occupied Halberstadt in early 1625. Leopold suffered 20,000 casualties, including 5,000 prisoners and 46 guns, compared to Swedish losses of 4,000 killed or wounded. Elle opposa les Habsbourg d’Espagne et du Saint-Empire romain germanique, soutenus par la papauté, aux États allemands protestants frondeurs du Saint-Empire, ainsi qu’à leurs alliés (Danemark, Suède, et France notamment). La ville de Magdebourg était placée depuis novembre 1630 sous le blocus du comte de Pappenheim. Entre la France et l'Espagne, la guerre va toutefois se prolonger jusqu'en 1659. Première partie • « La guerre de trente ans » (1914-1945) avec ses massacres à grande échelle, ses tueries de masse et le génocide des juifs. [98], Taken as a whole, the consequences of these two treaties can be divided into the internal political settlement and external territorial changes. Frederick's son Charles Louis regained the Lower Palatinate and became the eighth Imperial elector, although Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate and its electoral vote. [65], However, once again Richelieu provided the requisite support; in the 1631 Treaty of Bärwalde, he provided funds for the Heilbronn League, a Swedish-led coalition of German Protestant states, including Saxony and Brandenburg. The Imperial army under Gallas retreated into Bohemia, pursued by Torstenson, whose victory at Jankau in March 1645 allowed him to threaten both Prague and Vienna. Possession of these fortresses gave France effective control of Piedmont, protected the Alpine passes into Southern France, and allowed them to threaten Milan at will. Torstensson expelled the Danes from Bremen-Verden and occupied Jutland; after a decisive naval defeat at Fehmarn in October 1644, the Danes sued for peace. The war originated in differences between German Protestants and Catholics, which were temporarily settled by the 1555 Peace of Augsburg but gradually undermined by political and religious tensions. In late August, Gustavus incurred heavy losses in an unsuccessful assault on the town, arguably the greatest blunder in his German campaign. They included separation of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, expansion of the French frontier into the Empire, and an end to Spanish military supremacy in Northern Europe. Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War, La vida y hechos de Estebanillo González, hombre de buen humor, compuesta por él mismo, Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, "The French Army of the Thirty Years' War: Introduction and Maison du Roi", "Review Article: Spain and the Netherlands in the 17th Century", "Military developments in the Thirty Years War", "Lecture 6: Europe in the Age of Religious Wars, 1560–1715", "German 'witch' declared innocent after 385 years", "The Battle of Wittstock 1636: Conflicting Reports on a Swedish Victory in Germany", "The Socio-Economic Relations of Warfare and the Military Mortality Crises of the Thirty Years' War", "Real Wages and the Origins of Modern Economic Growth in Germany, 16th to 19th Centuries", "The Long-term Impact of the Thirty Years War: What Grain Price Data Reveal", "The Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics", http://www.mdsz.thulb.uni-jena.de/sz/index.php, Project "Peace of Westphalia" (among others with Essay Volumes of the 26th Exhibition of the Council of Europe "1648: War and Peace in Europe", 1998/99), BBC Radio4 documentary – The Invention of Germany: The Thirty Years' War and Magdeburg, - Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth, "The Thirty Years' War - how was peace achieved? Includes soldiers from the Spanish Netherlands and Spanish Italy. These trials lasted five years and claimed over one thousand lives, including long-time Bürgermeister, or Mayor, Johannes Junius, and Dorothea Flock, second wife of Georg Heinrich Flock, whose first wife had also been executed for witchcraft in May 1628. [43], At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands and electoral vote to Maximilian.  Brunswick-Lüneburg (1634–1642) A few days later, Ferdinand withdrew the Edict and signed the Peace of Prague, dissolving the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues, and creating a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. Pour les catholiques de l'époque, elle était la manifestation de la colère divine. Emperor Rudolf approved intervention by the Catholic Maximilian of Bavaria on their behalf; he was allowed to annex Donauwörth to recover his costs, turning a Lutheran town Catholic. La mémoire collective et la littérature en conservent la souvenir, de Simplicissimus à Mère Courage. La guerre de Trente Ans a été menée entre 1618 et 1648. With Saxony occupied by Sweden, Ferdinand III accepted the need to include them in peace negotiations. [121], Elsewhere, persecution followed Imperial military success, expanding into Baden and the Palatinate following their reconquest by Tilly, then into the Rhineland. A specially designed Malefizhaus, or 'crime house', was erected containing a torture chamber, whose walls were adorned with Bible verses, where the accused were interrogated. [80], In September 1645, the Swedes agreed a six-month truce with Saxony; Ferdinand accepted a military solution was no longer possible, and in October ordered his diplomats to begin serious negotiations at Westphalia. Les actes de guerre et de pillage durent jusqu'au 24 mai. By weakening the Habsburgs while increasing the status of France and Sweden, it led to a new balance of power on the continent. Anger at such tactics and his growing power came to a head in early 1628 when Ferdinand deposed the hereditary Duke of Mecklenburg, and appointed Wallenstein in his place. Occasionally it meant full-scale conflict, such as the 1583 to 1588 Cologne War, caused by the conversion to Calvinism of the Prince Elector, Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg. [88], France and Savoy made peace in the April 1629 Treaty of Suza, which allowed French troops passage through Savoy, and recognised their control of Casale and Pinerolo. […] Le monde fait la guerre de trente ans, pour ou contre la domination universelle du germanisme ». [99] Sweden received an indemnity of five million thalers, the Imperial territories of Swedish Pomerania, and Prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden; this gave them a seat in the Imperial Diet. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company was formed to challenge this control and captured the Brazilian port of Salvador in 1624. Première partie « La guerre de trente ans » (1914-1945) « La guerre contre l’Allemagne a commencé en 1914. Soldiers devastated one area then moved on, abandoning large tracts of land and changing the eco-system. [63], Expectations of widespread support proved unrealistic; by the end of 1630, the only new Swedish ally was Magdeburg, which was besieged by Tilly. Une guerre, à l'époque où la Lorraine était un duché indépendant de la France . [18] In addition, rulers might share the same religion but have different economic and strategic objectives; for much of the war, the Papacy supported France against the Habsburgs. The Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand first required the return of all property taken from the Catholic church since 1552, rather than leaving the courts to decide case by case as previously. By the time he died in 1631, over 900 people from all levels of society had been executed. La ville protestante espérant l'arrivée des troupes de secours de Gustave Adolphe refusa cependant de capituler. Five days later, the Prince de Condé won a decisive French victory at Rocroi, although he was unable to take full advantage. While Spain remained the dominant power in Italy, its reliance on long exterior lines of communication was a potential weakness, especially the Spanish Road; this overland route allowed them to move recruits and supplies from Naples and Lombardy to their army in Flanders. Verdun, Guernica, Auschwitz, Hiroshima sont autant de symboles qui, dans la mémoire collective, caractérisent cette « ère de catastrophes » (Eric Hobsbawm) [113] Although suggested towns over-stated losses to avoid taxes, individual records show serious declines; from 1620 to 1650, the population of Munich fell from 22,000 to 17,000, that of Augsburg from 48,000 to 21,000. [34], By mid-June, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside Vienna; Mansfeld's defeat by Spanish-Imperial forces at Sablat forced him to return to Prague, but Ferdinand's position continued to worsen. [97], Negotiations with France and Sweden were conducted in conjunction with the Imperial Diet, and were multi-sided discussions involving many of the German states. [58], Made over-confident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an Edict of Restitution, which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. [117] The collapse of local government created landless peasants, who banded together to protect themselves from the soldiers of both sides, and led to widespread rebellions in Upper Austria, Bavaria and Brandenburg. In the October 1619 Treaty of Munich, Ferdinand agreed to transfer the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria and allow him to annex the Upper Palatinate.